"Every presentation of philosophy, whether oral or written, is to be taken and can only be taken in the sense of a means. Every system is only an expression or image of reason, and hence only an object of reason, an object which reason - a living power that procreates itself in new thinking beings - distinguishes from itself and posits as an object of criticism. Every system that is not recognized and appropriated as just a means, limits and warps the mind for it sets up the indirect and formal thought in the place of the direct, original and material thought." (Ludwig A Feuerbach, "Towards a Critique of Hegel's Philosophy", 1839)
"The moment a person forms a theory, his imagination sees, in every object, only the traits which favor that theory." (Thomas Jefferson, [letter to Charles Thompson] 1787)
"All experience attests the strength of the tendency to mistake mental abstractions, even negative ones, for substantive realities; and the Permanent Possibilities of sensation which experience guarantees arc so extremely unlike in many of their properties to actual sensations, that since we are capable of imagining something which transcends sensations, there is a great natural probability that we should suppose these to be it." (Hippolyte Taine, "On intelligence", 1871)
"Thought often leads us far beyond the imaginable without thereby depriving us of the basis for our conclusions. Even if, as it appears, thought without mental pictures is impossible for us men, still their connection with the object of thought can be wholly superficial, arbitrary, and conventional." (Gottlob Frege, "The Foundations of Arithmetic" , 1884)
"This is the greatest degree of impoverishment; the [mental] image, deprived little by little of its own characteristics, is nothing more than a shadow. […] Being dependent on the state of the brain, the image undergoes change like all living substance, - it is subject to gains and losses, especially losses. But each of the foregoing three classes has its use for the inventor. They serve as material for different kinds of imagination - in their concrete form, for the mechanic and the artist; in their schematic form, for the scientist and for others." (Théodule-Armand Ribot, "Essay on the Creative Imagination", 1900)
"Confronted with the mystery of the Universe, we are driven to ask if the model our minds have framed at all corresponds with the reality; if, indeed, there be any reality behind the image." (Sir William C Dampier, "The Recent Development of Physical Science", 1904)
"[…] we can only study Nature through our senses - that is […] we can only study the model of Nature that our senses enable our minds to construct; we cannot decide whether that model, consistent though it be, represents truly the real structure of Nature; whether, indeed, there be any Nature as an ultimate reality behind its phenomena." (William C Dampier, "The Recent Development of Physical Science", 1904)
"The classical tradition has been to consider the world to be an association of observable objects (particles, fluids, fields, etc.) moving according to definite laws of force, so that one could form a mental picture in space and time of the whole scheme. This led to a physics whose aim was to make assumptions about the mechanism and forces connecting these observable objects in the simplest possible way. It has become increasingly evident in recent times, however, that nature works on a different plan. Her fundamental laws do not govern the world as it appears in our mental picture in any very direct way, but instead they control a substratum of which we cannot form a mental picture without introducing irrelevancies." (P A M Dirac, "The Principles of Quantum Mechanics", 1930)
"Most mistakes in philosophy and logic occur because the human mind is apt to take the symbol for the reality." (Albert Einstein, "Cosmic Religion: With Other Opinions and Aphorisms", 1931)
"It is by abstraction that one can separate movements, knowledge, and affectivity. And the analysis is, here, so far from being a real dismemberment that it is given only as probable. One can never effectively reduce an [mental] image to its elements, for the reason that an image, like all other psychic syntheses, is something more and different from the sum of its elements. […] We will always go from image to image. Comprehension is a movement which is never-ending, it is the reaction of the mind to an image by another image, to this one by another image and so on, in principle to infinity." (Jean-Paul Sartre, "The Imaginary: A phenomenological psychology of the imagination", 1940)
"Man is always prey to his truths. Once he has admitted them, he cannot free himself from them." (Albert Camus, "The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays", 1942)
"Although we can never devise a pictorial representation which shall be both true to nature and intelligible to our minds, we may still be able to make partial aspects of the truth comprehensible through pictorial representations or parables. As the whole truth does not admit of intelligible representation, every such pictorial representation or parable must fail somewhere. The physicist of the last generation was continually making pictorial representations and parables, and also making the mistake of treating the half-truths of pictorial representations and parables as literal truths." (James H Jeans," Physics and Philosophy" 3rd Ed., 1943)
"Those who are content with a positivist conception of the aims of science will feel that he is in an entirely satisfactory position; he has discovered the pattern of events, and so can predict accurately; what more can he want? A mental picture would be an added luxury, but also a useless luxury. For if the picture did not bear any resemblance at all to the reality it would be valueless, and if it did it would be unintelligible […]" (James H Jeans," Physics and Philosophy" 3rd Ed., 1943)
"[…] many philosophers have found it difficult to accept the hypothesis that an object is just about what it appears to be, and so is like the mental picture it produces in our minds. For an object and a mental picture are of entirely different natures - a brick and the mental picture of a brick can at best no more resemble one another than an orchestra and a symphony. In any case, there is no compelling reason why phenomena - the mental visions that a mind constructs out of electric currents in a brain - should resemble the objects that produced these currents in the first instance." (James H Jeans," Physics and Philosophy" 3rd Ed., 1943)
"[…] the eye sees only what the mind is prepared to comprehend […]" (Robertson Davies, "Tempest-Tost", 1951)
"Speaking without metaphor we have to declare that we are here faced with one of these typical antinomies caused by the fact that we have not yet succeeded in elaborating a fairly understandable outlook on the world without retiring our own mind, the producer of the world picture, from it, so that mind has no place in it. The attempt to press it into it, after all, necessarily produces some absurdities." (Erwin Schrödinger, „Mind and Matter: the Tarner Lectures", 1956)
"Once we give serious consideration to the hypothesis of the unconscious, it follows that our view of the world can be but a provisional one; for if we effect so radical an alteration in the subject of perception and cognition as this dual focus implies, the result must be a world view very different from any known before." (Carl Gustav Jung, "The Structure And Dynamics Of The Psyche", 1960)
"We do not see things as they are, we see them as we are." (Anaïs Nin, "Seduction of the Minotaur", 1961)
"What a man sees depends both upon what he looks at and also upon what his previous visual-conceptual experience has taught him to see." (Thomas Kuhn, "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions", 1962)
"This whole illusion has its history in ways of thinking - in the images, models, myths, and language systems which we have used for thousands of years to make sense of the world. […] Idolatry is not the use of images, but confusing them with what they represent, and in this respect mental images and lofty abstractions can be more insidious than bronze idols." (Alan W. Watts," The Book on the Taboo Against Knowing Who You Are", 1966)
"Mental models are fuzzy, incomplete, and imprecisely stated. Furthermore, within a single individual, mental models change with time, even during the flow of a single conversation. The human mind assembles a few relationships to fit the context of a discussion. As debate shifts, so do the mental models. Even when only a single topic is being discussed, each participant in a conversation employs a different mental model to interpret the subject. Fundamental assumptions differ but are never brought into the open. […] A mental model may be correct in structure and assumptions but, even so, the human mind - either individually or as a group consensus - is apt to draw the wrong implications for the future." (Jay W Forrester, "Counterintuitive Behaviour of Social Systems", Technology Review, 1971)
"However, and conversely, our models fall far short of representing the world fully. That is why we make mistakes and why we are regularly surprised. In our heads, we can keep track of only a few variables at one time. We often draw illogical conclusions from accurate assumptions, or logical conclusions from inaccurate assumptions. Most of us, for instance, are surprised by the amount of growth an exponential process can generate. Few of us can intuit how to damp oscillations in a complex system." (Donella H Meadows, "Limits to Growth", 1972)
"The model of the natural world we build in our minds by such a process will forever be inadequate, just a little cathedral in the mountains. Still it is better than no model at all."(Timothy Ferris, "The Red Limit: The Search for the Edge of the Universe", 1977)
"A person who thinks by images becomes less and less capable of thinking by reasoning, and vice versa. The intellectual process based on images is contradictory to the intellectual process of reasoning that is related to the word. There are two different ways of dealing with an object. They involve not only different approaches, but even more important, opposing mental attitudes. This is not a matter of complementary processes, such as analysis and synthesis or logic and dialectic. These processes lack any qualitative common denominator." (Jacques Ellul, "The Humiliation of the Word", 1981)
"At present, no complete account can be given - one may as well ask for an inventory of the entire products of the human imagination - and indeed such an account would be premature, since mental models are supposed to be in people's heads, and their exact constitution is an empirical question. Nevertheless, there are three immediate constraints on possible models. […] 1. The principle of computability: Mental models, and the machinery for constructing and interpreting them, are computable. […] 2. The principle of finitism: A mental model must be finite in size and cannot directly represent an infinite domain. […] 3. The principle of constructivism: A mental model is constructed from tokens arranged in a particular structure to represent a state of affairs." (Philip Johnson-Laird, "Mental Models" 1983)
"People’s mental models are apt to be deficient in a number of ways, perhaps including contradictory, erroneous, and unnecessary concepts. As designers, it is our duty to develop systems and instructional materials that aid users to develop more coherent, useable mental models. As teachers, it is our duty to develop conceptual models that will aid the learner to develop adequate and appropriate mental models. And as scientists who are interested in studying people’s mental models, we must develop appropriate experimental methods and discard our hopes of finding neat, elegant mental models, but instead learn to understand the messy, sloppy, incomplete, and indistinct structures that people actually have." (Donald A Norman, "Some Observations on Mental Models" [in "Mental Models"], 1983)
"Ideas that require people to reorganize their picture of the world provoke hostility." (James Gleick, "Chaos: Making a New Science", 1987)
"The problem with mental models lie not in whether they are right or wrong - by definition, all models are simplifications. The problem with mental models arise when they become implicit - when they exist below the level of our awareness. "[…] models, if unexamined, limit an organization's range of actions to what is familiar and comfortable. [...] Each person's mental model focuses on different parts of the system. Each emphasizes different cause-effect chains. This makes it virtually impossible for a shared picture of the system as a whole to emerge in normal conversation." (Peter Senge, "The Fifth Discipline", 1990)
"An important symptom of an emerging understanding is the capacity to represent a problem in a number of different ways and to approach its solution from varied vantage points; a single, rigid representation is unlikely to suffice." (Howard Gardner, "The Unschooled Mind", 1991)
"Mental models are the images, assumptions, and stories which we carry in our minds of ourselves, other people, institutions, and every aspect of the world. Like a pane of glass framing and subtly distorting our vision, mental models determine what we see. Human beings cannot navigate through the complex environments of our world without cognitive ‘mental maps’; and all of these mental maps, by definition, are flawed in some way." (Peter M Senge et al, "The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization", 1994)
"What are the models? Well, the first rule is that you’ve got to have multiple models - because if you just have one or two that you’re using, the nature of human psychology is such that you’ll torture reality so that it fits your models, or at least you’ll think it does." (Charles Munger, 1994)
"Perhaps we all lose our sense of reality to the precise degree to which we are engrossed in our own work, and perhaps that is why we see in the increasing complexity of our mental constructs a means for greater understanding, even while intuitively we know that we shall never be able to fathom the imponderables that govern our course through life." (Winfried G Sebald, "The Rings of Saturn", 1995)
"Beliefs are generalizations about the past projected onto the present and future to shape it in the image of the past. [...] When we generalize from incomplete or unrepresentative experience, we form mental models that make the wrong predictions, but because beliefs act as self-fulfilling prophecies it is hard to find out, because we are less open to counter examples." (Joseph O’Connor, "Leading With NLP: Essential Leadership Skills for Influencing and Managing People", 1998)
"To begin with, we must understand that any mindset consists of mental models, or concepts, that influence our interpretation of situations and predispose us to certain responses. These models, which are replete with beliefs and assumptions, thus strongly determine the way we understand the world and act in it. The irony is, they become so ingrained in us, as tendencies and predispositions, that we seldom pay attention to them." (Stephen G Haines, "The Manager's Pocket Guide to Strategic and Business Planning", 1998)
"Accurate estimates depend at least as much upon the mental model used in forming the picture as upon the number of pieces of the puzzle that have been collected." (Richards J. Heuer Jr, "Psychology of Intelligence Analysis", 1999)
"The major problem of the mental model approach lies in the fact that the external world is to be represented in a highly specific way. Representing indeterminacy in terms of mental models thus poses difficulties, casting some doubt on the contention that mental models can do without variables." (Gert Rickheit & Lorenz Sichelschmidt, "Mental Models: Some Answers, Some Questions, Some Suggestions", 1999)
"Metaphysics in philosophy is, of course, supposed to characterize what is real - literally real. The irony is that such a conception of the real depends upon unconscious metaphors." (George Lakoff, "Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought", 1999)
"The self-reinforcing feedback between expectations and perceptions has been repeatedly demonstrated […]. Sometimes the positive feedback assists learning by sharpening our ability to perceive features of the environment, as when an experienced naturalist identifies a bird in a distant bush where the novice sees only a tangled thicket. Often, however, the mutual feedback of expectations and perception blinds us to the anomalies that might challenge our mental models and lead to deep insight." (John D Sterman, "Business Dynamics: Systems thinking and modeling for a complex world", 2000)
"Our mental maps are often not terribly accurate, based as they are on our own selective experience, our knowledge and ignorance, and the information and misinformation we gain from others; nevertheless, these are the maps we depend on every day." (Peter Turchi, "Maps of the Imagination: The writer as cartographer", 2004)
"Often our mental models serve a very useful and practical purpose by helping us to make very quick sense of our experiences and interactions. However, the danger for us is that our mental models do not always reflect the truth, i.e. the way things really are. Often they reflect what we believe to be true, and sometimes we get it wrong." (John Middleton, "Upgrade Your Brain: 52 brilliant ideas for everyday genius", 2006)
"Your mental models shape the way you see the world. They help you to quickly make sense of the noises that filter in from outside, but they can also limit your ability to see the true picture. [...] We eventually lose all awareness that these ‘models’ are in fact internal illusions. We accept them as external reality and act on them as if they were. If they are good models, in most circumstances they more than adequately permit the mind to handle external reality. But here a danger creeps in. When the world changes in important ways, we can find ourselves with a model that is completely irrelevant to the current situation. We find ourselves wearing our street clothes when we are thrown off the deck of a ship. What we need at that point is a wet suit and lifejacket." (Colin Cook & Yoram R Wind, "The Power of Impossible Thinking: Transform the Business of Your Life and the Life of Your Business", 2006)
"Our generational perspective contributes to the mental models we hold about ourselves, the world, and the way things ‘should’ be. These beliefs create blind spots that can become our undoing as we pursue our values and seek to accomplish our goals. Likewise, they can have a powerful effect on our culture." (Deborah Gilburg, "Empowering Multigenerational Collaboration in the Workplace", The Systems Thinker Vol. 18 No. 4, 2007)
"Humans have difficulty perceiving variables accurately […]. However, in general, they tend to have inaccurate perceptions of system states, including past, current, and future states. This is due, in part, to limited ‘mental models’ of the phenomena of interest in terms of both how things work and how to influence things. Consequently, people have difficulty determining the full implications of what is known, as well as considering future contingencies for potential systems states and the long-term value of addressing these contingencies. " (William B. Rouse, "People and Organizations: Explorations of Human-Centered Design", 2007)
"Our inner working models, therefore, function as interpretation schemes, on the basis of which we organize our experiences. But, such schemes also distort reality in the direction of our pattern of expectations. In short: such working models organize and screen our experiences. This means that such an inner working model organizes and colours our perception of things in such a way that it can be extremely stimulating but can also sometimes slow us down considerably." (M H M de Wolf, "Freud and Mahler", 2007)
"The most serious problem in applied ethics, or at least in business ethics, is not that we frame experiences; it is not that these mental models are incomplete, sometimes biased, and surely parochial. The larger problem is that most of us either individually or as managers do not realize that we are framing, disregarding data, ignoring counterevidence, or not taking into account other points of view." (Patricia H Werhane "A Place for Philosophers in Applied Ethics and the Role of Moral Reasoning in Moral Imagination", Business Ethics Quarterly 16 (3), 2007)
"[…] our mental models fail to take into account the complications of the real world - at least those ways that one can see from a systems perspective. It is a warning list. Here is where hidden snags lie. You can’t navigate well in an interconnected, feedback-dominated world unless you take your eyes off short-term events and look for long-term behavior and structure; unless you are aware of false boundaries and bounded rationality; unless you take into account limiting factors, nonlinearities and delays. You are likely to mistreat, misdesign, or misread systems if you don’t respect their properties of resilience, self-organization, and hierarchy." (Donella H Meadows, "Thinking in Systems: A Primer", 2008)
"We also use our imagination and take shortcuts to fill gaps in patterns of nonvisual data. As with visual input, we draw conclusions and make judgments based on uncertain and incomplete information, and we conclude, when we are done analyzing the patterns, that out picture is clear and accurate. But is it?" (Leonard Mlodinow, "The Drunkard's Walk: How Randomness Rules Our Lives", 2009)
"What makes something simple or complex? It's not the number of dials or controls or how many features it has: It is whether the person using the device has a good conceptual model of how it operates." (Donald Norman, "Living with Complexity", 2010)
"A general limitation of the human mind is its imperfect ability to reconstruct past states of knowledge, or beliefs that have changed. Once you adopt a new view of the world (or any part of it), you immediately lose much of your ability to recall what you used to believe before your mind changed." (Daniel Kahneman, "Thinking, Fast and Slow", 2011)
"The discrepancy between our mental models and the real world may be a major problem of our times; especially in view of the difficulty of collecting, analyzing, and making sense of the unbelievable amount of data to which we have access today." (Ugo Bardi, "The Limits to Growth Revisited", 2011)
"To think that the world can ever change without changes in our mental models is folly." (Joseph Jaworski, "Synchronicity: The Inner Path of Leadership", 2011)
"Although good ethical decision-making requires us carefully to take into account as much relevant information as is available to us, we have good reason to think that we commonly fall well short of this standard – either by overlooking relevant facts completely or by underestimating their significance. The mental models we employ can contribute to this problem. As we have explained, mental models frame our experiences in ways that both aid and hinder our perceptions. They enable us to focus selectively on ethically relevant matters. By their very nature, they provide incomplete perspectives, resulting in bounded awareness and bounded ethicality. Insofar as our mental modeling practices result in unwarranted partiality, or even ethical blindness, the desired reflective process is distorted. This distortion is aggravated by the fact that our mental models can have this distorting effect without our consciously realizing it. Thus, although we cannot do without mental models, they leave us all vulnerable to blindness and, insofar as we are unaware of this, self-deception." (Patricia H Werhane et al, "Obstacles to Ethical: Decision-Making Mental Models, Milgram and the Problem of Obedience", 2013)
"Conceptual models are often constructed from fragmentary evidence, with only a poor understanding of what is happening, and with a kind of naive psychology that postulates causes, mechanisms, and relationships, even where there are none." (Don Norman, "The Design of Everyday Things", 2013)
"Mental models are problematic because they typically operate unconsciously. This means that they influence behavior and structure thinking in ways that individuals do not recognize and therefore cannot easily articulate. This makes certain kinds of exploratory conversations difficult or impossible, and causes even reasonable propositions to be rejected out of hand." (Kim Erwin, "Communicating The New: Methods to Shape and Accelerate Innovation", 2013)
"Mental models serve to conceptualize, focus and shape our experiences, but in so doing, they sometimes cause us to ignore data and occlude critical reflection that might be relevant or, indeed, necessary to practical decision-making. [...] distorting mental models are the foundation or underpinning of many of the impediments to effective ethical decision-making." (Patricia H Werhane et al, "Obstacles to Ethical: Decision-Making Mental Models, Milgram and the Problem of Obedience", 2013)
"We identify and analyze distorting mental models that constitute experience in a manner that occludes the moral dimension of situations from view, thereby thwarting the first step of ethical decision-making. Examples include an unexamined moral self-image, viewing oneself as merely a bystander, and an exaggerated conception of self-sufficiency. These mental models, we argue, generate blind spots to ethics, in the sense that they limit our ability to see facts that are right before our eyes – sometimes quite literally, as in the many examples of managers and employees who see unethical behavior take place in front of them, but do not recognize it as such." (Patricia H Werhane et al, "Obstacles to Ethical: Decision-Making Mental Models, Milgram and the Problem of Obedience", 2013)
"Thinking in models has enormous advantages for us as a species, in representing the unknowable world in a form in which we can locate ourselves and with which we can engage. But it also has disadvantages for us whether as natural scientists, psychoanalytic theorists, practising analysts, or simply as individuals. We can become in Wittgenstein’s phrase the fly in the ‘fly bottle’ of our own model, with its own language from which philosophy might have a part to play in rescuing us." (Ronald Britton, "Between Mind and Brain: Models of the mind and models in the mind", 2015)
"A mental model is not necessarily founded on facts or complete understanding of reality. Let's be honest, most of our mental models are flawed in many ways, and that's perfectly normal. They work because they are fast and simple and not because they are a complete representation of the reality. […] The most important thing about a person's mental model is that it's simplified and very limited compared to what it models." (Peter W Szabo, "User Experience Mapping", 2017)
"The social world that humans have made for themselves is so complex that the mind simplifies the world by using heuristics, customs, and habits, and by making models or assumptions about how things generally work (the ‘causal structure of the world’). And because people rely upon (and are invested in) these mental models, they usually prefer that they remain uncontested." (Dr James Brennan, "Psychological Adjustment to Illness and Injury", West of England Medical Journal Vol. 117 (2), 2018)
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