| Period | Author(s) | Title | Description | Region |
| 500 BC* | Simonides of Ceos | • earliest usage of "mental images" (as reported by Cicero [#], see mental models) | Greek | |
| 320 BC* | Plato | "Ion", "The Republic" (books II, III & X1) | • earliest usage of "mimesis", close to image or representation as meaning | Greek |
| 350 BC* | Aristotle | "Prior Analytics" | • proposed a syllogistic system of reasoning in which a logical argument where a quantified statement of a specific form (the conclusion) is inferred from two other quantified statements (the premises) • used schemata of deduction |
Greek |
| 350 BC* | Aristotle | "De Anima" ("On the Soul") | • phantasmata ([#], see mental models) |
Greek |
| 2nd c. BC | • Phaistos clay disc with radial structure | Greek | ||
| 55 BC | Marcus Tullius Cicero | "De Oratore" | • speaks of Simonides of Ceos who developed a system of mnemonics based on (mental) images and places called the 'method of loci' | Latin |
| 3rd c. | Porphyry of Tyre | Tree of Porphyry | • illustrates Aristotle's classification of categories into a tree-like fashion called also a ‘scale of being’ [link] • the oldest known semantic network |
Greek |
| 5th c. | The Great Stemma | • combination of a timeline and 15 family trees that represents the progression of generations mentioned in the Bible, from Adam and Eve, to Christ [2] | Latin | |
| 520* | Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius | "Isagogen Porphyrii Commentum" | • version of Arbor Porphyriana | Latin |
| 562* | Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus | • graphical representation of the outline of the Bible [2] | Latin | |
| 1239 | Peter of Spain (aka Petrus Hispanus) | "Summulae Logicales" | • logical hierarchy with aristotelian categories represented knowledge by genus | Spain |
| 1268* | St. Thomas Aquinas | "De Anima" | • commentaries on Aristotle's De Anima | Italy |
| 1350 | Ramon Llull | "Ars Magna" | • first logic machine constructed to answer spiritual questions • "earliest attempt in the history of formal logic to employ geometrical diagrams for the purpose of discovering nonmathematical truths, and the first attempt to use a mechanical device - a kind of primitive logic machine - to facilitate the operation of a logic system." [1] |
Spain |
| Leornado Davinci | • | |||
| 1175* | Usama ibn Munqidh | "Book of Contemplation" | • | Syria |
| 1509 | Thomas Murner | "Logica Memorativa" | • provides mnemonic strategies for the student to learn logic quickly | |
| 1527 | Dante Alighieri | "Divine Comedy" | • edition published by Panganino & Alessandro Paganini includes a ‘moral schema of Hell’, grouping sinners according to theological and moral concepts | Italy |
| 1586 | Stevin | "De weedgaet" | • | |
| 1641 | René Descartes | "Meditations" II | • | France |
| 1651 | Thomas Hobbes | "Leviathan: The Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil" | • | England |
| 1664? | d’Anguerrande | "Treatise on the virtues of excellence, and how one may acquire them." | • use of radiant organization of nodes, color and single-word branches (similar to Buzan mind mappers) [2] | |
| 1666 | Gottfried W Leibnitz | "Dissertio de arte combinatoria" | • constructs an exhaustive table of all possible combinations of premises and conclusions in the traditional syllogism. | German |
| 1661 | Johann C Sturm | "Universalia Euclidea" | • uses circles for representing actual class propositions and syllogisms [1] | German |
| 1669 | Athanasius Kircher | "Ars magna sciendi sive combinatoria. | • first visual organiser | German |
| Isaac Newton | • came close to originating concept maps [2] | England | ||
| 1678 | John Bunyan | "Pilgrim’s Progress" | • visual organizer on religious thematic | |
| 1686 | Gottfried W Leibniz | "Discourse on Metaphysics" | • | German |
| 1688 | Nicolas Malebranche | "Dialogues On Metaphysics And Religion" | • | French |
| 1712 | Johann Christian Lange | "Nucleus logicae Weisianae" | • uses circles for representing actual class propositions and syllogisms [1] • "a geometrical system that will not only represent class statements and syllogisms in a highly isomorphic manner, but also can be manipulated for the actual solution of problems in class logic" [1] |
German |
| 1738 | David Hume | "Treatise of Human Nature", | • | England |
| 1761 | Leonhard Euler | "Lettres d'une Princesse d'Allemagne", Vol. 2, 1772, letters 102 to 108. | • | Swiss |
| 1764 | Johann Heinrich Lambert | "Neues Organon" | • linear method of diagraming, closely allied to the Euler circles | Swiss |
| 1781 | Immanuel Kant | "Critique of Pure Reason" | • introduction of "schema" | German |
| 1800 | Charles Stanhope | "The Science of Reasoning Clearly Explained upon New Principles" unpublished | • "logic demonstrator" device (described in Rev. Robert Harley, "The Stanhope Demonstrator", Mind, Vol. 4, April, 1879) | England |
| 1802 | Immanuel Kant | "Physische Geographie" ["Physical Geography"] | • first indirect reference to a "mental model" like concept | German |
| 1837 | Charles R Darwin | • first thoughts of an evolutionary tree of life that shows notionally the relationships that he was beginning to feel might exist among species [1] | England | |
| 1846 | William Hamilton | • "quantification of the predicate" | England | |
| 1854 | George Boole | • presented his laws of thought as an algebra for propositional logic: 1 for truth; 0 for falsehood; + for or; × for and; and − for not |
England | |
| 1855 | New York and Erie Railroad | • plan and organization of the company, is more ‘radial’ than organization charts usually are, and has much of the organic feel that we find in many mind maps: | England | |
| 1870 | John Tyndall | "Scientific Use of the Imagination" | • | England |
| 1872 | Augustus De Morgan | "Budget of Paradoxes" | • numerical syllogism - "shows how easily traditional class logic slides over into arithmetic." [1] | England |
| 1874 | William Stanley Jevons | "Principles of Science" | • | England |
| 1879 | Gottlob Frege | • used tree diagrams for representing first-order-logic, but nobody else adopted his notation | German | |
| 1880 | John Venn | "On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical Representation of Propositions and Reasonings", Philosophical Magazine | • it was not the first use of such representation, however he comprehensively surveyed and formalized their usage, and was the first to generalize them. | England |
| 1880 | Charles Sanders Peirce | "On the algebra of logic", American Journal of Mathematics 3, 15-57 | • assertional networks | USA |
| 1881 | John Venn | "Symbolic Logic" | • | England |
| 1883 | Francis H Bradley | "The Principles of Logic" | • | England |
| 1889 | John Venn | "Principles of Empirical Logic" | • | England |
| 1870 | Charles S Peirce | • added n-adic relations to Boolean algebra | USA | |
| 1880 | Charles S Peirce | • introduced quantifiers | USA | |
| 1885 | Charles S Peirce | "On the algebra of logic", American Journal of Mathematics 7 | • extended the algebraic notation to both first-order and higher-order logic | USA |
| 1889 | Giuseppe Peano | "Aritmetices principia nova methoda exposita" | • adopted Peirce’s algebra and changed some of the symbols to create the modern notation for predicate calculus. |
Italy |
| 1896 | Charles S Peirce | • invented existential graphs (EGs) as a more diagrammatic notation for "the atoms and molecules of logic." | ||
| 1897 | Wilhelm M Wundt | "Outlines of psychology" | • memory-image | German |
| 1886 | Lewis Carroll | "The Game of Logic" | • | England |
| 1894 | Heinrich Hertz | • | German | |
| 1896 | Lewis Carroll | "Symbolic Logic" | • | England |
| 1899 | Ludwig Boltzmann | German | ||
| 1904 | Richard Semon | "Die mnemischen Empfindungen in ihren Beziehungen zu den Originalempfindungen" | • development of the engram theory of memory | German |
| 1913 | Otto Selz | • executable network include some mechanism, such as marker passing or attached procedures, which can perform inferences, pass messages, or search for patterns and associations | German | |
| 1913 | Charles C Trowbridge | "On fundamental methods of orientation and imaginary", Science Vol. 38, Issue 990 | • imaginary maps | USA |
| 1922 | Ludwig Wittgenstein | "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus" | • | German |
| 1923 | Jean Piaget | • introduces schema | Swiss | |
| 1924 | Jacques Raverat | • mind mapping-like structuring (described in a letter to Virginia Woolf) [2] | French | |
| 1925 | Alfred Korzybski | • "structural differential" patent for a physical chart or three-dimensional model illustrating the abstracting processes of the human nervous system | Polish | |
| 1931 | Charles Williams | "The Place of the Lion" | • early suggestive of visual mapping [2] | England |
| 1932 | Edward Lee Thorndike | "The Fundamentals of Learning" | • developed a stimulus-response theory, which he called connectionism [3] | USA |
| 1936 | Kurt Lewin | "Principles of Topological Psychology" | • | German/ USA |
| 1940 | Jean-Paul Sartre | "The Imaginary: A phenomenological psychology of the imagination" | • review of the literature • critics Bergson’s work |
French |
| 1943 | Kenneth Craik | "The Nature of Explanation" | • | England |
| 1943 | Warren McCulloch & Walter Pitts | • learning networks • designed a theoretical model of neural nets that are capable of learning and computing any Boolean function of their inputs [3] |
||
| 1948 | Edward C Tolman | "Cognitive maps in rats and men". Psychological Review. 55 (4) | • proposed that rats use cognitive maps to navigate | French |
| 1950 | Arthur W Melton, | "Learning", Annual Review of Psychology I, 9-3 | • cognitive maps | |
| 1956 | Richard H Richens | "Preprogramming for mechanical translation", Mechanical Translation 3:1 | • introduces semantic nets for computers as an "interlingua" for machine translation of natural languages, "in which all the structural peculiarities of the base language are removed and we are left with what I shall call a ‘semantic net’ of ‘naked ideas’. | |
| 1957 | Walt Disney | • business map (concept map-like) | ||
| 1958 | Frank Rosenblatt | "The perceptron: a probabilistic model for information storage and organization in the brain", Psychological Review 65:6 | • built a machine called a perceptron, which simulated the nodes and links of a neural net [3] | |
| 1961 | Margaret Masterman | "Semantic message detection for machine translation, using an interlingua, in NPL" | • "developed a list of 100 primitive concept types, such as Folk, Stuff, Thing, Do, and Be. She organized the concept types in a lattice, which permits inheritance from multiple supertypes" | |
| 1963 | Robert F Simmons | "Synthetic language behavior", Data Processing Management. 5 (12): | • | |
| 1963 | David Ausubel | "The psychology of meaningful verbal learning" | • | |
| 1964 | Carl G Jung | "Man and His Symbols" | • | |
| 1964 | David Hays | • presented dependency theory as a formal alternative to Chomsky’s syntactic notations | ||
| 1968 | Evelyn Wood | Reading Dynamics course | • used a technique resembling mind mapping [2] | |
| 1967 | M. R Quillian | "Word concepts: A theory and simulation of some basic semantic capabilities", Behavioral Science 12(5) | • | |
| 1969 | Allan M. Collins; M. R. Quillian | "Retrieval time from semantic memory", Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior 8(2) | • | |
| 1971 | M Buckley Hanf | "Mapping: A technique for translating reading into thinking", Journal of Reading 14 | • | |
| 1974 | Tony Buzan | "Use your head" | • introduces mind maps (further books follow) | |
| 1975 | Marvin Minsky | "A Framework for the Representation of Knowledge" | • introduces the representation of common sense knowledge via frames | |
| 1976 | John F Sowa | "Conceptual Structures: Information Processing in Mind and Machine" | • introduces conceptual graph | |
| 1976 | Chuck Rieger | • introduces implicational networks: "use implication as the primary relation for connecting nodes. They may be used to represent patterns of beliefs, causality, or inferences. That way it is also called belief networks, causal networks, Bayesian networks, or truth-maintenance system." | ||
| 1976 | • introduces entity-relationship model (ERM) | |||
| 1976 | Richard Dawkins | "The Selfish Gene" | • coins meme as "unit of information residing in the brain and is the mutating replicator in human cultural evolution" | |
| 1976 | Joseph D Novak | • introduces frame semantics | ||
| 1977 | Joseph D Novak | "A Theory of Education" | • | |
| 1978 | Joseph D Novak | • connections | ||
| 1978 | Joseph D Novak | • advance organizers revisited | ||
| 1979 | J Stewart et al | "Concept maps: A tool for use in biology teaching" The American Biology Teacher, 41(3), | • | |
| 1979 | Joseph D Novak | "Applying psychology and philosophy to the improvement of laboratory teaching", The American Biology Teacher, 41(8) | • | |
| 1980 | Joseph D Novak | "Learning theory applied to the biology classroom", The American Biology Teacher, 42(5) | • | |
| 1980 | Brian Wilson | "Systems: Concepts, methodologies and Applications" | • | |
| 1980 | Glenn Freedman, Elizabeth G. Reynolds | "Enriching Basal Reader Lessons with Semantic Webbing" The Reading Teacher 33 (6) | • | |
| 1981 | Peter Checkland | "Systems Thinking, Systems Practice" | • | |
| 1983 | Philip Johnson-Laird | "Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference and Consciousness" | • | |
| 1983 | Brachman | • hybrid networks: combine two or more of the previous techniques, either in a single network or in separate, but closely interacting networks | ||
| 1981 | Craig J Cleland | "Highlighting Issues in Children's Literature through Semantic Webbing" The Reading Teacher 33(6) | • | |
| 1983 | Dedre Gentner & Albert Stevens | • edited a collection of chapters in a book titled "Mental Models" | ||
| 1987 | John F Sowa | "Semantic Networks" | • | |
| 1984 | Joseph D Novak & B Gowin | "Learning how to learn" | • | |
| 1998 | Joseph D Novak | "Learning, creating, and using knowledge: Concept Maps as Facilitative Tools in Schools and Corporations" | • | |
| 1998 | Richard C Anderson. | • schema theory | ||
| 1991 | Richard Dawkins | "Viruses of the Mind" [essay] | • uses memetics to explain the phenomenon of religious belief and the various characteristics of organized religions | |
References:
[1] Martin Gardner (1958) Logic Machines and Diagrams
[2] The Mind Mapping () Roots of Visual Mapping (link)
[3] Manuel Lima (2014) The Book of Trees: Visualizing branches of Knowledge
[4]
[1] Martin Gardner (1958) Logic Machines and Diagrams
[2] The Mind Mapping () Roots of Visual Mapping (link)
[3] Manuel Lima (2014) The Book of Trees: Visualizing branches of Knowledge
[4]
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