"There exist models, principles and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of the component elements, and the relations or 'forces' between them. We postulate a new discipline called General System Theory. General System Theory is a logico-mathematical field whose task is the formulation and derivation of those general principles that are applicable to 'systems' in general. In this way, exact formulations of terms such as wholeness and sum, differentiation, progressive mechanization, centralization, hierarchical order, finality and equifinality, etc., become possible, terms which occur in all sciences dealing with 'systems' and imply their logical homology [...]" (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, 1947/1955)
"The classical principle of causality held that similar conditions produce similar effects, and consequently dissimilar results are due to dissimilar conditions. Bertalanffy, in analyzing the self-regulating, or morphostatic, features of open biological systems, loosened this classical conception by introducing the concept of 'equifinality'. This holds that, in ontogenesis for example, a final normal adult state may be reached by any number of devious developmental routes. Morphogenetic processes, however, go even further and suggest an opposite principle that might be called "multifinality": similar initial conditions may lead to dissimilar end-states. Thus, two cultures developing in very similar ecological environments may end up with very different sociocultural systems." (Walter F Buckley, "Sociology and Modern Systems Theory", 1967)
"If a steady state is reached in an open system, it is independent of the initial conditions, and determined only by the system parameters, i.e., rates of reaction and transport. This is called equifinality as found in many organismic processes, e.g., in growth." (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "General System Theory", 1968)
"The fact that certain principles apply to systems in general, irrespective of the nature of the systems and of the entities concerned, explains that corresponding conceptions and laws appear independently in different fields of science, causing the remarkable parallelism in their modern development. Thus, concepts such as wholeness and sum, mechanization, centralization, hierarchical order, stationary and steady states, equifinality, etc., are found in different fields of natural science, as well as in psychology and sociology." (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "General System Theory", 1968)
"The first is the principle of equifinality. In any closed system, the final state is unequivocally determined by the initial conditions: e.g., the motion in a planetary system where the positions of the planets at a time t are unequivocally determined by their positions at a time t0. Or in a chemical equilibrium, the final concentrations of the reactants naturally depend on the initial concentrations. If either the initial conditions or the process is altered, the final state will also be changed. This is not so in open systems. Here, the same final state may be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways. This is what is called equifinality, and it has a significant meaning for the phenomena of biological regulation." (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "General System Theory", 1968)
"The theory of open systems is an important generalization of physical theory, kinetics and thermodynamics. It has led to new principles and insight, such as the principle of equifinality, the generalization of the second thermodynamic principle, the possible increase of order in open systems, the occurrence of periodic phenomena of overshoot and false start, etc." (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "General System Theory", 1968)
"[...] equifiniality, the tendency towards a characteristic final state from different initial states and in different ways, based upon dynamic interaction in an open system attaining a steady state; [...]" (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "General System Theory", 1968)
"There is, however, yet another basis for organic regulations. This is equifinality-i.e., the fact that the same final state can be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways. This is found to be the case in open systems, insofar as they attain a steady state. It appears that equifinality is responsible for the primary regulability of organic systems-i.e., for all those regulations which cannot be based upon predetermined structures or mechanisms, but on the contrary, exclude such mechanisms and were regarded therefore as arguments for vitalism." (Ludwig von Bertalanffy, "General System Theory", 1968)
"Open systems, in contrast to closed systems, exhibit a principle of equifinality, that is, a tendency to achieve a final state independent of initial conditions. In other words, open systems tend to 'resist' perturbations that take them away from some steady state. They can exhibit homeostasis." (Anatol Rapaport, "The Uses of Mathematical Isomorphism in General System Theory", 1972)
"The classical Aristotelian approach was to isolate and analyse, to reduce to simple, lineal, unidirectional cause-effect chains on a time sequence of prior cause and present effect - the 'why' of single causation. Sociological structures have replaced this by complex reticulate circuits, by networks of field and system and process, appealing to timeless, simultaneous states of related variables of 'equifinality', of 'multifinality', that is of devious developmental routes leading to similar final results or of similar conditions leading to dissimilar endstates, ranging from past and present to future and marking a revolutionary conceptual shift of attention from energy to information flow." (Patrick de Maré, "Perspectives in Group Psychotherapy", 1972)
"Positive, or deviation-amplifying feedback is seen in biological evolution and societal development, which exhibit processes of morphogenesis or, the elaboration of the system's form, organization or state discussed earlier. The implications of this distinction for the classic principle of causality has led to the further concept of equifinality in morphostatic system processes, which holds that an ultimate state may be reached by various developmental routes, and to the opposite principle of multifinality in morphogenetic situations where by similar initial conditions may lead to dissimilar end states” (Paul H Haynes, "Toward a Concept of Monitoring", The Town Planning review Vol. 45 (1), 1974)
"The same function can be performed in different ways by using different combinations of elements. There are several routes to the same goal-the principle sometimes described as equifinality." (Albert Cherns, "The Principles of Sociotechnical Design", Human Relations Vol. 29 (8), 1976)
"Every system of whatever size must maintain its own structure and must deal with a dynamic environment, i.e., the system must strike a proper balance between stability and change. The cybernetic mechanisms for stability" (i.e., homeostasis, negative feedback, autopoiesis, equifinality) and change" (i.e., positive feedback, algedonodes, self-organization) are found in all viable systems." (Barry Clemson, "Cybernetics: A New Management Tool", 1984)
"From these four propositions we can derive two basic principles of development, morphostasis and morphogenesis. Morphostasis refers to those processes in complex systemenvironment exchanges which tend to maintain a systems given form or organization. Morphostasis may represent developmental processes that lend themselves to observation of continuity. Morphogenic processes may by their nature be harder to observe and predict since they involve changes in a systems structure, state or functioning. Morphogenic processes may involve discontinuities in development. At the extreme morphogenesis can be related to catastrophes and radical changes (e.g. in terms of continuing levels of Y at some point leading to a steep change in X). Morphogenesis involves at least two kinds of developmental paths: 1) equifinality and 2) multifinality. Equifinality holds that a given outcome can be reached from any number of different developmental paths. In this case, similar outcomes may not be the result of similar initial conditions or mediating processes.[…] Multifinality is the opposite developmental principle to equifinality, Where by similar initial conditions may lead to dissimilar outcomes." (Candice Feiring & Michael Lewis, "Equifinality and Multifinality: Diversity in Development from Infancy into Childhood. Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development", 1987)
"Systems thinking, rooted in twentieth-century biology and cybernetics, posits open systems, accepts an observer in the system and equifinality, focuses on the kinds of relations among phenomena, on structures and forms, on exchanges of information, and on circular causality." (Tom LeClair, "The Art of Excess: Mastery in contemporary American fiction", 1989)
"[equifinality] quite simply means that different sorts of internal arrangements are perfectly compatible with identical contextual or environmental states. The principle goes against the idea of a quasi-ideal ‘match’ which is inherent in the principle of correspondence. Whereas correspondence [i.e. Contingency] theory suggests that rigid and bureaucratic structures are not a good match for volatile and shifting product markets, equifinality theorists claim that it may very well turn out to be a good match but only if the level and diversity of the workforce is large and organization culture produces motivated and flexible actors." (Ardnt M Sorge, "Organization behaviour", [Sorge and M Warner (eds), "The IEBM Handbook of Organizational Behaviour"] 1997)
"In mechanistic systems there is a direct cause-and-effect relationship between the initial conditions and the final state. Biological and social systems operate differently. Equifinality suggests that certain results may be achieved with different initial conditions and in different ways. It offers us a basis for the flexibility, agility, and choice needed in today's dynamic world." (Stephen G Haines, "The Manager's Pocket Guide to Systems Thinking & Learning, 1998)
"Equifinality and multifinality: Open systems have equally valid alternative ways of attaining the same objectives from different initial conditions (convergence) or, from a given initial state, obtain different, and mutually exclusive, objectives (divergence)." (Lars Skyttner, "General System Theory: Ideas & applications", 2001)
"Given negative feedback, a system's equilibrium state is invariant over a wide range of initial conditions (equifinality)." (Lars Skyttner, "General System Theory: Ideas & applications", 2001)
"Equifinality is the ability to reach the same final state from different initial conditions and in different ways. It depends on the existence of feedback and regulation." (Michael C Jackson, "Systems Approaches to Management", 2002)
"In open systems, for example, biological and social systems, final states or objectives may be reached in different ways and from disparate starting points. This property of finding equally valid ways is called equifinality. The reverse condition, achievement of different ends through use of the same means, is called multifinality." (Lars Skyttner, "General System Theory: Problems, Perspectives & Practice" 2nd. Ed., 2005)
"General systems theory is concerned with open systems. It explains how living systems function through importing energy from a pre-given environment, across the system’s boundary with that environment, transforming the imports into a form of functioning, and then exporting waste to the environment. The boundary is a given and its formation is not due to the functioning of the system. The theory explains how the system sustains homeostasis, or equilibrium, through adaptation
to the environment. The history of the system is not important in that what matters is the process of adaptation to the current environment. The principle of equifinality means that the state of homeostasis can be achieved from a large number of starting points and it is this that renders history unimportant." (Ralph D Stacey, "Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics: The Challenge of Complexity" 5th Ed., 2007)
"Equifinality [...] states that different sorts of internal arrangements and structures can be perfectly compatible with identical contextual or environmental states. Put simply, this means that there is more than one way for organisations to structure themselves in order to achieve their goals." (Bernard Burnes, "Managing change: a strategic approach to organisational dynamics" 5th ed., 2009)
"Equifinality: It is often possible to achieve similar results using different means or paths. Strategists should recognize that achieving a successful outcome is more important than imposing the method of achieving it. It may be possible to generate new alternatives that give equal results but with far greater potential for gaining commitment." (Fred R David, "Strategic Management: Concepts and cases" 13th Ed., 2011)
"Principle of Equifinality: If a steady state is reached in an open system, it is independent of the initial conditions, and determined only by the system parameters, i.e. rates of reaction and transport." (Kevin Adams & Charles Keating, "Systems of systems engineering", 2012)
"Multifinality is the opposite developmental principle to equifinality, whereby similar initial conditions lead to dissimilar outcomes. This indicates that for the investigator either the mechanisms are not understood or the relevant aspects have been left out." (Rob Dekkers, "Applied Systems Theory", 2014,
"The principles of equifinality, multifinality, homeostasis and heterostasis have farstretching implications for the application of deductive reasoning The paradox of equifinality and multifinality means that when observing the behaviour of a system, it might be moving towards a final state irrespective of the initial state or moving away from an initial state without being able to predict the final outcome." (Rob Dekkers, "Applied Systems Theory", 2014)
"As organizations do well in offsetting the entropic processes, they tend to grow and develop, which results in greater differentiation of products and services, along with the congruent need for integration and coordination. A final characteristic of organization according to open-system theory is the principle of equifinality, which essentially means that for any given goal, there are multiple paths that organizational members can take to achieve it. In short, it should be clear that managers of organizations need to be constantly aware that they are managing a system that has permeable boundaries, is dependent on its environment for survival, and will go out of existence unless it is actively attended to (managed)." (W Warner Burke, "Organization Change: Theory & Practice" 5th Ed., 2018)
